TY - BOOK AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine AU - National Academy of Engineering A2 - David A. Butler A2 - Joe Alper TI - Indoor Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter and Practical Mitigation Approaches: Proceedings of a Workshop SN - DO - 10.17226/26331 PY - 2022 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26331/indoor-exposure-to-fine-particulate-matter-and-practical-mitigation-approaches PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Health and Medicine AB - Overwhelming evidence exists that exposure to outdoor fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is associated with a range of short-term and chronic health impacts, including asthma exacerbation, acute and chronic bronchitis, heart attacks, increased susceptibility to respiratory infections, and premature death, with the burden of these health effects falling more heavily on underserved and marginalized communities. Although less studied to date, indoor exposure to PM2.5 is also gaining attention as a potential source of adverse health effects, particularly given that Americans spend 90 percent of their lives indoors and indoor PM2.5 levels can exceed outdoor levels. To better understand the sources of indoor PM2.5, the possible health effects of exposure to indoor PM2.5, and engineering approaches and interventions to reduce those exposure risks, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine convened a virtual workshop, Indoor Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter and Practical Mitigation Approaches, on April 14, 21, and 28, 2021. The workshop focused on exposures that occur in residential and school buildings and on existing and practical mitigation technologies and approaches. This publication summarizes the presentation and discussion of the workshop. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine TI - The Chemistry of Fires at the Wildland-Urban Interface SN - DO - 10.17226/26460 PY - 2022 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26460/the-chemistry-of-fires-at-the-wildland-urban-interface PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Math, Chemistry, and Physics KW - Earth Sciences KW - Environment and Environmental Studies AB - Wildfires in America are becoming larger, more frequent, and more destructive, driven by climate change and existing land management practices. Many of these fires occur at the wildland-urban interface (WUI), areas where development and wildland areas overlap and which are increasingly at risk of devastating fires as communities continue to expand into previously undeveloped areas. Unlike conventional wildfires, WUI fires are driven in part by burning of homes, cars, and other human-made structures, and in part by burning vegetation. The interaction of these two types of fires can lead to public health effects that are unique to WUI fires. This report evaluates existing and needed chemistry information that decision-makers can use to mitigate WUI fires and their potential health impacts. It describes key fuels of concern in WUI fires, especially household components like siding, insulation, and plastic, examines key pathways for exposure, including inhalation and ingestion, and identifies communities vulnerable to exposures. The report recommends a research agenda to inform response to and prevention of WUI fires, outlining needs in characterizing fuels, and predicting emissions and toxicants. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine TI - The Future of Atmospheric Chemistry Research: Remembering Yesterday, Understanding Today, Anticipating Tomorrow SN - DO - 10.17226/23573 PY - 2016 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/23573/the-future-of-atmospheric-chemistry-research-remembering-yesterday-understanding-today PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Earth Sciences AB - Our world is changing at an accelerating rate. The global human population has grown from 6.1 billion to 7.1 billion in the last 15 years and is projected to reach 11.2 billion by the end of the century. The distribution of humans across the globe has also shifted, with more than 50 percent of the global population now living in urban areas, compared to 29 percent in 1950. Along with these trends, increasing energy demands, expanding industrial activities, and intensification of agricultural activities worldwide have in turn led to changes in emissions that have altered the composition of the atmosphere. These changes have led to major challenges for society, including deleterious impacts on climate, human and ecosystem health. Climate change is one of the greatest environmental challenges facing society today. Air pollution is a major threat to human health, as one out of eight deaths globally is caused by air pollution. And, future food production and global food security are vulnerable to both global change and air pollution. Atmospheric chemistry research is a key part of understanding and responding to these challenges. The Future of Atmospheric Chemistry Research: Remembering Yesterday, Understanding Today, Anticipating Tomorrow summarizes the rationale and need for supporting a comprehensive U.S. research program in atmospheric chemistry; comments on the broad trends in laboratory, field, satellite, and modeling studies of atmospheric chemistry; determines the priority areas of research for advancing the basic science of atmospheric chemistry; and identifies the highest priority needs for improvements in the research infrastructure to address those priority research topics. This report describes the scientific advances over the past decade in six core areas of atmospheric chemistry: emissions, chemical transformation, oxidants, atmospheric dynamics and circulation, aerosol particles and clouds, and biogeochemical cycles and deposition. This material was developed for the NSF's Atmospheric Chemistry Program; however, the findings will be of interest to other agencies and programs that support atmospheric chemistry research. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine A2 - David A. Butler A2 - Guru Madhavan A2 - Joe Alper TI - Health Risks of Indoor Exposure to Particulate Matter: Workshop Summary SN - DO - 10.17226/23531 PY - 2016 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/23531/health-risks-of-indoor-exposure-to-particulate-matter-workshop-summary PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Health and Medicine AB - The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines PM as a mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets comprising a number of components, including "acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic chemicals, metals, soil or dust particles, and allergens (such as fragments of pollen and mold spores)". The health effects of outdoor exposure to particulate matter (PM) are the subject of both research attention and regulatory action. Although much less studied to date, indoor exposure to PM is gaining attention as a potential source of adverse health effects. Indoor PM can originate from outdoor particles and also from various indoor sources, including heating, cooking, and smoking. Levels of indoor PM have the potential to exceed outdoor PM levels. Understanding the major features and subtleties of indoor exposures to particles of outdoor origin can improve our understanding of the exposure–response relationship on which ambient air pollutant standards are based. The EPA's Indoor Environments Division commissioned the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to hold a workshop examining the issue of indoor exposure to PM more comprehensively and considering both the health risks and possible intervention strategies. Participants discussed the ailments that are most affected by particulate matter and the attributes of the exposures that are of greatest concern, exposure modifiers, vulnerable populations, exposure assessment, risk management, and gaps in the science. This report summarizes the presentations and discussions from the workshop. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine TI - Why Indoor Chemistry Matters SN - DO - 10.17226/26228 PY - 2022 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26228/why-indoor-chemistry-matters PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Math, Chemistry, and Physics KW - Environment and Environmental Studies AB - People spend the vast majority of their time inside their homes and other indoor environments where they are exposed to a wide range of chemicals from building materials, furnishings, occupants, cooking, consumer products, and other sources. Despite research to date, very little is known about how exposures to indoor chemicals across complex chemical phases and pathways affect human health. The COVID-19 pandemic has only increased public awareness of indoor environments and shed light on the many outstanding questions about how best to manage chemicals indoors. This report identifies gaps in current research and understanding of indoor chemistry and new approaches that can be applied to measure, manage, and limit chemical exposures. Why Indoor Chemistry Matters calls for further research about the chemical transformations that can occur indoors, pathways and timing of indoor chemical exposure, and the cumulative and long-term impacts of exposure on human health. Research priorities should consider factors that contribute to measurable environmental health disparities that affect vulnerable populations, such as the age, location, and condition of buildings that can alter exposures to indoor chemicals. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - A Plan for a Research Program on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change SN - DO - 10.17226/5107 PY - 1996 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/5107/a-plan-for-a-research-program-on-aerosol-radiative-forcing-and-climate-change PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Environment and Environmental Studies KW - Earth Sciences AB - This book recommends the initiation of an "integrated" research program to study the role of aerosols in the predicted global climate change. Current understanding suggest that, even now, aerosols, primarily from anthropogenic sources, may be reducing the rate of warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions. In addition to specific research recommendations, this book forcefully argues for two kinds of research program integration: integration of the individual laboratory, field, and theoretical research activities and an integrated management structure that involves all of the concerned federal agencies. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine A2 - April Melvin TI - Wildland Fires: Toward Improved Understanding and Forecasting of Air Quality Impacts: Proceedings of a Workshop SN - DO - 10.17226/26465 PY - 2022 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26465/wildland-fires-toward-improved-understanding-and-forecasting-of-air-quality-impacts PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Earth Sciences AB - Wildland fires pose a growing threat to air quality and human health. Fire is a natural part of many landscapes, but the extent of area burned and the severity of fires have been increasing, concurrent with human movement into previously uninhabited fire-prone areas and forest management practices that have increased fuel loads. These changes heighten the risk of exposure to fire itself and emissions (smoke), which can travel thousands of miles and affect millions of people, creating local, regional, and national air quality and health concerns. To address this growing threat, the National Academies brought together atmospheric chemistry and health research communities, natural resource managers, and decision makers to discuss current knowledge and needs surrounding how wildland fire emissions affect air quality and human health. Participants also explored opportunities to better bridge these communities to advance science and improve the production and exchange of information. This publication summarizes the workshop discussions and themes that emerged throughout the meeting. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Global Sources of Local Pollution: An Assessment of Long-Range Transport of Key Air Pollutants to and from the United States SN - DO - 10.17226/12743 PY - 2010 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/12743/global-sources-of-local-pollution-an-assessment-of-long-range PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Environment and Environmental Studies AB - Recent advances in air pollution monitoring and modeling capabilities have made it possible to show that air pollution can be transported long distances and that adverse impacts of emitted pollutants cannot be confined to one country or even one continent. Pollutants from traffic, cooking stoves, and factories emitted half a world away can make the air we inhale today more hazardous for our health. The relative importance of this "imported" pollution is likely to increase, as emissions in developing countries grow, and air quality standards in industrial countries are tightened. Global Sources of Local Pollution examines the impact of the long-range transport of four key air pollutants (ozone, particulate matter, mercury, and persistent organic pollutants) on air quality and pollutant deposition in the United States. It also explores the environmental impacts of U.S. emissions on other parts of the world. The book recommends that the United States work with the international community to develop an integrated system for determining pollution sources and impacts and to design effective response strategies. This book will be useful to international, federal, state, and local policy makers responsible for understanding and managing air pollution and its impacts on human health and well-being. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Review of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Fossil Energy's Research Plan for Fine Particulates SN - DO - 10.17226/9715 PY - 1999 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9715/review-of-the-us-department-of-energy-office-of-fossil-energys-research-plan-for-fine-particulates PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Energy and Energy Conservation ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academy of Engineering AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine TI - Health Risks of Indoor Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter and Practical Mitigation Solutions SN - DO - 10.17226/27341 PY - 2024 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/27341/health-risks-of-indoor-exposure-to-fine-particulate-matter-and-practical-mitigation-solutions PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Health and Medicine KW - Engineering and Technology AB - Schools, workplaces, businesses, and even homes are places where someone could be subjected to particulate matter (PM) – a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. PM is a ubiquitous pollutant comprising a complex and ever-changing combination of chemicals, dust, and biologic materials such as allergens. Of special concern is fine particulate matter (PM2.5), PM with a diameter of 2.5 microns (<0.0001 inch) or smaller. Fine PM is small enough to penetrate deep into the respiratory system, and the smallest fraction of it, ultrafine particles (UFPs), or particles with diameters less than 0.1 micron, can exert neurotoxic effects on the brain. Overwhelming evidence exists that exposure to PM2.5 of outdoor origin is associated with a range of adverse health effects, including cardiovascular, pulmonary, neurological and psychiatric, and endocrine disorders as well as poor birth outcomes, with the burden of these effects falling more heavily on underserved and marginalized communities. Health Risks of Indoor Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter and Practical Mitigation Solutions explores the state-of the-science on the health risks of exposure to fine particulate matter indoors along with engineering solutions and interventions to reduce risks of exposure to it, including practical mitigation strategies. This report offers recommendations to reduce population exposure to PM2.5, to reduce health impacts on susceptible populations including the elderly, young children, and those with pre-existing conditions, and to address important knowledge gaps. ER - TY - BOOK AU - Transportation Research Board AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine A2 - Saravanan Arunachalam A2 - Alejandro Valencia A2 - Matthew C. Woody A2 - Michelle G. Snyder A2 - Jiaoyan Huang A2 - Jeffrey Weil A2 - Philip Soucacos A2 - Sandy Webb TI - Dispersion Modeling Guidance for Airports Addressing Local Air Quality Health Concerns DO - 10.17226/24881 PY - 2017 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/24881/dispersion-modeling-guidance-for-airports-addressing-local-air-quality-health-concerns PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Transportation and Infrastructure AB - TRB's Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) Research Report 179: Dispersion Modeling Guidance for Airports Addressing Local Air Quality Health Concerns provides guidance for selecting and applying dispersion models to study local air quality health impacts resulting from airport-related emissions. The report explores challenges associated with modeling emissions in an airport setting for the purpose of understanding their potential impacts on human health. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academy of Engineering AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine TI - Transforming EPA Science to Meet Today's and Tomorrow's Challenges SN - DO - 10.17226/26602 PY - 2023 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26602/transforming-epa-science-to-meet-todays-and-tomorrows-challenges PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Environment and Environmental Studies KW - Engineering and Technology AB - Since its establishment in 1970, the mission of the Environmental Protection Agency is to protect human health and the environment. EPA develops regulations, ensures compliance, and issues policies, in coordination with state, tribal, and local governments. To accomplish its mission, EPA should be equipped to produce and access the highest quality and most advanced science. The Office of Research and Development (ORD) provides the scientific bases for regulatory and public health policies that have broad impacts on the nation’s natural resources and quality of human life, and that yield economic benefits and incur compliance costs for the regulated community. In addition, ORD develops the agency core research capabilities, providing tools and methods for meeting current and anticipating future environmental challenges, such as the risks to health and the environment posed by climate change. Because challenges associated with environmental protection today are complex and affected by many interacting factors, the report points to the need for a substantially broader and better integrated approach to environmental protection. This report calls for EPA ORD to pursue all of its scientific aims in a new framework—to apply systems thinking to a One Environment − One Health approach in all aspects of ORD work. To accomplish this, the report provides actionable recommendations on how ORD might consider incorporating emerging science and systems thinking into the agency research planning, so that ORD can become an increasingly impactful organization. The report identifies a number of high-priority recommendations for ORD to pursue in taking advantage of a broad range of advanced tools, in concert with collaborators in other federal agencies and the broader scientific community. Given the resource constraints, the report recognizes that ORD will have to make decisions about priorities for implementing its recommendations, and that ORD leadership is in the best position to set those priorities as implementation begins. The report concluded by stating that shifting to a systems-thinking approach will require renewed support from science leadership, enhanced strategic planning, investment in new and broader expertise and tools, and a reimagined and inclusive commitment to communication and collaboration. ER - TY - BOOK AU - Transportation Research Board AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine A2 - Brian Kim A2 - Kazumi Nakada A2 - Roger Wayson A2 - Simon Christie A2 - Christopher Paling A2 - Michael Bennett A2 - David Raper A2 - Virginia Raps A2 - Jonathan Levy A2 - Christopher Roof TI - Understanding Airport Air Quality and Public Health Studies Related to Airports DO - 10.17226/22119 PY - 2015 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/22119/understanding-airport-air-quality-and-public-health-studies-related-to-airports PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Transportation and Infrastructure AB - TRB’s Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) Report 135: Understanding Airport Air Quality and Public Health Studies Related to Airports explores the following air quality issues: the literature regarding standards and regulations; issues at airports; health impacts and risks; and the industry’s current understanding of its health impacts. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Review of the NARSTO Draft Report: NARSTO Assessment of the Atmospheric Science on Particulate Matter SN - DO - 10.17226/10507 PY - 2002 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/10507/review-of-the-narsto-draft-report-narsto-assessment-of-the PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Environment and Environmental Studies ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine TI - A Review of the Environmental Protection Agency's Science to Achieve Results Research Program SN - DO - 10.17226/24757 PY - 2017 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/24757/a-review-of-the-environmental-protection-agencys-science-to-achieve-results-research-program PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Environment and Environmental Studies AB - Environmental research has driven landmark improvements that led to the protection of human and ecosystem health. Recognizing the value of knowledge generated by environmental research and the ingenuity within academic and nonprofit institutions, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) created a program known as Science to Achieve Results, or STAR, in 1995. STAR is EPA’s primary competitive extramural grants program. A Review of the Environmental Protection Agency’s Science to Achieve Results Research Program assesses the program’s scientific merit, public benefits, and overall contributions in the context of other relevant research and recommends ways to enhance those aspects of the program. This report also considers the conclusions and recommendations of a prior National Research Council review of the STAR program (2003), the STAR program’s research priorities in light of the nation’s environmental challenges, and the effects of recent STAR funding trends on obtaining scientific information needed to protect public health and the environment. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Test and Evaluation of Biological Standoff Detection Systems: Abbreviated Version SN - DO - 10.17226/12058 PY - 2008 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/12058/test-and-evaluation-of-biological-standoff-detection-systems-abbreviated-version PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Conflict and Security Issues AB - A biological warfare agent (BWA) is a microorganism, or a toxin derived from a living organism, that causes disease in humans, plants, or animals or that causes the deterioration of material. The effectiveness of a BWA is greatly reduced if the attack is detected in time for the target population to take appropriate defensive measures. Therefore, the ability to detect a BWA, in particular to detect it before the target population is exposed, will be a valuable asset to defense against biological attacks. The ideal detection system will have quick response and be able to detect a threat plume at a distance from the target population. The development of reliable biological standoff detection systems, therefore, is a key goal. However, testing biological standoff detection systems is difficult because open-air field tests with BWAs are not permitted under international conventions and because the wide variety of environments in which detectors might be used may affect their performance. This book explores the question of how to determine whether or not a biological standoff detection system fulfills its mission reliably if we cannot conduct open-air field tests with live BWAs. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council A2 - Tina Masciangioli A2 - Joe Alper TI - Challenges in Characterizing Small Particles: Exploring Particles from the Nano- to Microscale: A Workshop Summary SN - DO - 10.17226/13317 PY - 2012 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/13317/challenges-in-characterizing-small-particles-exploring-particles-from-the-nano PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Math, Chemistry, and Physics KW - Environment and Environmental Studies AB - Small particles are ubiquitous in the natural and built worlds and have tremendous impact throughout. However, a lack of understanding about the properties and chemical composition of small particles limits our ability to predict, and control their applications and impacts. Challenges in Characterizing Small Particles: Exploring Particles from the Nano- to Microscales summarizes presentations and discussions at a 2010 National Academies roundtable. Speakers at this roundtable discussed the crucial types of information that need to be determined about small particles in different media. They also explored the critical importance of small particles in environmental science, materials and chemical sciences, biological science, and engineering, and the many challenges involved in characterizing materials at the nano- and microscales. The discussions on characterization included static, dynamic, experimental, computational, and theoretical characterization. The workshop also included several "research tool" presentations that highlighted new advances in characterizing small particles. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions SN - DO - 10.17226/10139 PY - 2001 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/10139/climate-change-science-an-analysis-of-some-key-questions PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Earth Sciences KW - Environment and Environmental Studies AB - The warming of the Earth has been the subject of intense debate and concern for many scientists, policy-makers, and citizens for at least the past decade. Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions, a new report by a committee of the National Research Council, characterizes the global warming trend over the last 100 years, and examines what may be in store for the 21st century and the extent to which warming may be attributable to human activity. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Research Council TI - Radiative Forcing of Climate Change: Expanding the Concept and Addressing Uncertainties SN - DO - 10.17226/11175 PY - 2005 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/11175/radiative-forcing-of-climate-change-expanding-the-concept-and-addressing PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Environment and Environmental Studies KW - Earth Sciences AB - Changes in climate are driven by natural and human-induced perturbations of the Earth's energy balance. These climate drivers or "forcings" include variations in greenhouse gases, aerosols, land use, and the amount of energy Earth receives from the Sun. Although climate throughout Earth's history has varied from "snowball" conditions with global ice cover to "hothouse" conditions when glaciers all but disappeared, the climate over the past 10,000 years has been remarkably stable and favorable to human civilization. Increasing evidence points to a large human impact on global climate over the past century. The report reviews current knowledge of climate forcings and recommends critical research needed to improve understanding. Whereas emphasis to date has been on how these climate forcings affect global mean temperature, the report finds that regional variation and climate impacts other than temperature deserve increased attention. ER - TY - BOOK AU - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine TI - Review of the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management "Air Quality Modeling in the Gulf of Mexico Region" Study SN - DO - 10.17226/25600 PY - 2019 UR - https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/25600/review-of-the-bureau-of-ocean-energy-management-air-quality-modeling-in-the-gulf-of-mexico-region-study PB - The National Academies Press CY - Washington, DC LA - English KW - Environment and Environmental Studies KW - Earth Sciences AB - Emissions associated with oil and gas exploration, development, and production on the Gulf waters can result in increased levels of air pollutants that contribute to a range of air quality impacts in the Gulf of Mexico Region (GOMR). “Criteria air pollutants”, such as carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide, are considered harmful to public health and the environment. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) manages the U.S. outer continental shelf oil and gas resources and is required to help manage air quality in the GOMR. Review of the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management “Air Quality Modeling in the Gulf of Mexico Region” Study reviews and provides feedback on the BOEM’s Air Quality Modeling in the Gulf of Mexico Region Study. This independent technical review of the study explores whether the study meets its goals, accurately reflects the scientific literature, uses reasonable data and modeling analyses, approaches quantitative modeling appropriately, documents findings in a consistent, transparent, and credible way, and aligns with necessary guidelines. ER -