@BOOK{NAP author = "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", title = "Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies", isbn = "978-0-309-44791-1", abstract = "Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies assesses the status of medical, research, sterilization, and other commercial applications of radioactive sources and alternative (nonradioisotopic) technologies in the United States and internationally. Focusing on Category 1, 2, and 3 sources, this report reviews the current state of these sources by application and reviews the current state of existing technologies on the market or under development that are or could be used to replace radioisotopic technologies in those applications. Radioactive Sources will support existing and future activities under the National Nuclear Security Administration Office of Radiological Security program to reduce the use of high-risk radiological materials in commercial applications.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26121/radioactive-sources-applications-and-alternative-technologies", year = 2021, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", title = "Review of the Continued Analysis of Supplemental Treatment Approaches of Low-Activity Waste at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation: Review #3", isbn = "978-0-309-69973-0", abstract = "The Hanford Nuclear Reservation in the state of Washington produced about two-thirds of the nations plutonium for nuclear weapons from 1944 until the last reactor was shut down in 1987. The U.S. Department of Energy Office of Environmental Management (DOE-EM) manages the ongoing clean-up at Hanford and has built a plant to convert the high-level radioactive waste into a glass form (vitrification) for safe disposal. However, decisions remain about how best to treat and dispose of the low-level waste at Hanford, which comprises over 90% of the volume of waste. To inform its decision, DOE contracted with key Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDC), led by Savannah River National Laboratory, to carry out an analysis. This final in a trilogy of reports from the National Academies reviews the FFRDC third report released in January 2023.\nThe review finds that the FFRDC team made a strong technical case that converting the supplemental low-level waste from the vitrification process to a grout form (like cement) is the best option in terms of cost-effectiveness and timeliness, and that off-site disposal of that grout is a valid option as it will be away from potable water. The FFRDC provided a useful framework to help decision-makers understand the issues and trade-offs of the disposal options and did an excellent job of isolating specific factual considerations that can be analyzed, often quantified, and compared with each other. The FFRDC chose to provide a purely technical analysis that excluded analysis of two important factors to be considered - securing regulatory permissions and public acceptance - treating them, for now, as uncertainties. Looking ahead, the DOE faces many uncertainties and should emphasize flexibility in its overall approach, allowing for multiple, redundant options and pathways, as well as the ability to change over time.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26872/review-of-the-continued-analysis-of-supplemental-treatment-approaches-of-low-activity-waste-at-the-hanford-nuclear-reservation", year = 2023, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", title = "Leveraging Advances in Modern Science to Revitalize Low-Dose Radiation Research in the United States", isbn = "978-0-309-27577-4", abstract = "Radiation exposure at low doses (below 100 milligray) or low-dose rates (less than 5 milligray per hour) occurs in a wide range of medical, industrial, military, and commercial settings. The effects of exposure at these levels are not fully understood, but there are long-standing concerns that such exposure could negatively affect human health. Although cancer has been linked to low-dose radiation exposure for decades, there is increasing evidence that low-dose radiation exposure may also be associated with cardiovascular disease, neurological disorders, immune dysfunction, and cataracts. \nRecent advances in research, new tools, and a coordinated multidisciplinary research program could help fill knowledge gaps about the health impacts of low-dose radiation exposures. This report calls for the development of a U.S. research program to study how low doses of radiation affect cancer, cardiovascular disease, neurological disorders, and other disease risks. Research should also better define the impacts of radiation doses, dose rates, types of radiation, and exposure duration. The report estimates $100 million annually for the next 15 years would be required to conduct epidemiological and biological research, and to establish an infrastructure for research.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26434/leveraging-advances-in-modern-science-to-revitalize-low-dose-radiation-research-in-the-united-states", year = 2022, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", title = "Review of the Continued Analysis of Supplemental Treatment Approaches of Low-Activity Waste at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation: Review #2", isbn = "978-0-309-69083-6", abstract = "The Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Washington state, which produced plutonium for nuclear weapons from 1944-1987, is the site of the largest and most complex nuclear cleanup challenge in the United States. The U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Environmental Management (DOE-EM) is responsible for managing the cleanup of the radioactive and other hazardous wastes stored in 177 underground tanks at the site. DOE plans to use vitrification, or immobilization in glass waste forms, for all of the high-level radioactive waste at Hanford. However, because the volume of \"low-activity waste\" exceeds DOEs capacity limits for vitrification, DOE must decide how to treat the remaining \"supplemental low-activity waste\" (SLAW) so that it can be safely disposed in a near-surface disposal site. To help inform its decision, DOE contracted with a Federally Funded Research and Development Center (FFRDC), led by Savannah River National Laboratory, to analyze and report its findings about three potential alternative technologies.At the request of Congress, the National Academies reviewed the FFRDC report in terms of its value for decision making and how well it meets various Congressional requirements related to Hanford cleanup. The review concludes that the FFRDC report is overall very strong, provides a useful framework for evaluating the technology options, and is responsive to guidance from the first National Academies review. The framework provides for structured side-by-side comparisons, using relevant criteria, of a limited number of alternatives for managing SLAW. Recommendations for strengthening the report include estimating a lifecycle cost profile for constructing and operating each alternative, and providing more in-depth discussion on potential challenges that may need to be addressed in obtaining the necessary various regulatory approvals.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26632/review-of-the-continued-analysis-of-supplemental-treatment-approaches-of-low-activity-waste-at-the-hanford-nuclear-reservation", year = 2022, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Academy of Engineering and National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", title = "Laying the Foundation for New and Advanced Nuclear Reactors in the United States", isbn = "978-0-309-69077-5", abstract = "The world confronts an existential challenge in responding to climate change, resulting in an urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sectors of the economy. What will it take for new and advanced nuclear reactors to play a role in decarbonization? Nuclear power provides a significant portion of the worlds low-carbon electricity, and advanced nuclear technologies have the potential to be smaller, safer, less expensive to build, and better integrated with the modern grid. However, if the United States wants advanced nuclear reactors to play a role in its plans for decarbonization, there are many key challenges that must be overcome at the technical, economic, and regulatory levels.\nLaying the Foundation for New and Advanced Nuclear Reactors in the United States discusses how the United States could support the successful commercialization of advanced nuclear reactors with a set of near-term policies and practices. The recommendations of this report address the need to close technology research gaps, explore new business use cases, improve project management and construction, update regulations and security requirements, prioritize community engagement, strengthen the skilled workforce, and develop competitive financing options.\n", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26630/laying-the-foundation-for-new-and-advanced-nuclear-reactors-in-the-united-states", year = 2023, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Research Council", title = "Understanding and Managing Risk in Security Systems for the DOE Nuclear Weapons Complex: (Abbreviated Version)", isbn = "978-0-309-20884-0", abstract = "A nuclear weapon or a significant quantity of special nuclear material (SNM) would be of great value to a terrorist or other adversary. It might have particular value if acquired from a U.S. facility--in addition to acquiring a highly destructive tool, the adversary would demonstrate an inability of the United States to protect its nuclear assets. The United States expends considerable resources toward maintaining effective security at facilities that house its nuclear assets. However, particularly in a budget-constrained environment, it is essential that these assets are also secured efficiently, meaning at reasonable cost and imposing minimal burdens on the primary missions of the organizations that operate U.S. nuclear facilities.\nIt is in this context that the U.S. Congress directed the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA)--a semi-autonomous agency in the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) responsible for securing nuclear weapons and significant quantities of SNM--asked the National Academies for advice on augmenting its security approach, particularly on the applicability of quantitative and other risk-based approaches for securing its facilities. In carrying out its charge, the committee has focused on what actions NNSA could take to make its security approach more effective and efficient.\nThe committee concluded that the solution to balancing cost, security, and operations at facilities in the nuclear weapons complex is not to assess security risks more quantitatively or more precisely. This is primarily because there is no comprehensive analytical basis for defining the attack strategies that a malicious, creative, and deliberate adversary might employ or the probabilities associated with them. However, using structured thinking processes and techniques to characterize security risk could improve NNSA's understanding of security vulnerabilities and guide more effective resource allocation.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/13108/understanding-and-managing-risk-in-security-systems-for-the-doe-nuclear-weapons-complex", year = 2011, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Research Council", title = "Evaluating Testing, Costs, and Benefits of Advanced Spectroscopic Portals: Final Report (Abbreviated Version)", isbn = "978-0-309-18617-9", abstract = "This letter is the abbreviated version of an update of the interim report on testing, evaluation, costs, and benefits of advanced spectroscopic portals (ASPs), issued by the National Academies' Committee on Advanced Spectroscopic Portals in June 2009 (NRC 2009). This letter incorporates findings of the committee since that report was written, and it sharpens and clarifies the messages of the interim report based on subsequent committee investigations of more recent work by the Domestic Nuclear Detection Office (DNDO). The key messages in this letter, which is the final report from the committee, are stated briefly in the synopsis on the next page and described more fully in the sections that follow. The committee provides the context for this letter, and then gives advice on: testing, evaluation, assessing costs and benefits, and deployment of advanced spectroscopic portals. The letter closes with a reiteration of the key points. \nThe letter is abbreviated in that a small amount of information that may not be released publicly for security or law-enforcement reasons has been redacted from the version delivered to you in October 2010, but the findings and recommendations remain intact.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/13082/evaluating-testing-costs-and-benefits-of-advanced-spectroscopic-portals-final", year = 2011, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", editor = "Amanda Purcell and Nancy Huddleston", title = "Frontiers in Decadal Climate Variability: Proceedings of a Workshop", isbn = "978-0-309-44461-3", abstract = "Many factors contribute to variability in Earth's climate on a range of timescales, from seasons to decades. Natural climate variability arises from two different sources: (1) internal variability from interactions among components of the climate system, for example, between the ocean and the atmosphere, and (2) natural external forcings, such as variations in the amount of radiation from the Sun. External forcings on the climate system also arise from some human activities, such as the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols. The climate that we experience is a combination of all of these factors. \n\nUnderstanding climate variability on the decadal timescale is important to decision-making. Planners and policy makers want information about decadal variability in order to make decisions in a range of sectors, including for infrastructure, water resources, agriculture, and energy. \n\nIn September 2015, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine convened a workshop to examine variability in Earth's climate on decadal timescales, defined as 10 to 30 years. During the workshop, ocean and climate scientists reviewed the state of the science of decadal climate variability and its relationship to rates of human-caused global warming, and they explored opportunities for improvement in modeling and observations and assessing knowledge gaps. Frontiers in Decadal Climate Variability summarizes the presentations and discussions from the workshop.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/23552/frontiers-in-decadal-climate-variability-proceedings-of-a-workshop", year = 2016, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", title = "Independent Assessment of Science and Technology for the Department of Energy's Defense Environmental Cleanup Program", isbn = "978-0-309-48775-7", abstract = "The National Defense Authorization Act for fiscal year 2017 contained a request for a National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine review and assessment of science and technology development efforts within the Department of Energy's Office of Environmental Management (DOE-EM). This technical report is the result of the review and presents findings and recommendations.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/25338/independent-assessment-of-science-and-technology-for-the-department-of-energys-defense-environmental-cleanup-program", year = 2019, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", title = "Review of the Analysis of Supplemental Treatment Approaches of Low-Activity Waste at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation: Review #1", isbn = "978-0-309-47515-0", abstract = "In 1943, as part of the Manhattan Project, the Hanford Nuclear Reservation was established with the mission to produce plutonium for nuclear weapons. During 45 years of operations, the Hanford Site produced about 67 metric tonnes of plutonium\u2014approximately two-thirds of the nation's stockpile. Production processes generated radioactive and other hazardous wastes and resulted in airborne, surface, subsurface, and groundwater contamination. Presently, 177 underground tanks contain collectively about 210 million liters (about 56 million gallons) of waste. The chemically complex and diverse waste is difficult to manage and dispose of safely. \n\nSection 3134 of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017 calls for a Federally Funded Research and Development Center (FFRDC) to conduct an analysis of approaches for treating the portion of low-activity waste (LAW) at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation intended for supplemental treatment. The first of four, this report reviews the analysis carried out by the FFRDC. It evaluates the technical quality and completeness of the methods used to conduct the risk, cost benefit, schedule, and regulatory compliance assessments and their implementations; waste conditioning and supplemental treatment approaches considered in the assessments; and other key information and data used in the assessments.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/25093/review-of-the-analysis-of-supplemental-treatment-approaches-of-low-activity-waste-at-the-hanford-nuclear-reservation", year = 2018, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Research Council", title = "Analysis of Cancer Risks in Populations Near Nuclear Facilities: Phase 1", isbn = "978-0-309-25571-4", abstract = "In the late 1980s, the National Cancer Institute initiated an investigation of cancer risks in populations near 52 commercial nuclear power plants and 10 Department of Energy nuclear facilities (including research and nuclear weapons production facilities and one reprocessing plant) in the United States. The results of the NCI investigation were used a primary resource for communicating with the public about the cancer risks near the nuclear facilities. However, this study is now over 20 years old. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission requested that the National Academy of Sciences provide an updated assessment of cancer risks in populations near USNRC-licensed nuclear facilities that utilize or process uranium for the production of electricity.\nAnalysis of Cancer Risks in Populations near Nuclear Facilities: Phase 1 focuses on identifying scientifically sound approaches for carrying out an assessment of cancer risks associated with living near a nuclear facility, judgments about the strengths and weaknesses of various statistical power, ability to assess potential confounding factors, possible biases, and required effort. The results from this Phase 1 study will be used to inform the design of cancer risk assessment, which will be carried out in Phase 2. This report is beneficial for the general public, communities near nuclear facilities, stakeholders, healthcare providers, policy makers, state and local officials, community leaders, and the media.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/13388/analysis-of-cancer-risks-in-populations-near-nuclear-facilities-phase", year = 2012, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", title = "Disposal of Surplus Plutonium at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant: Interim Report", isbn = "978-0-309-48500-5", abstract = "Disposal of Surplus Plutonium at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant: Interim Report evaluates the general viability of the U.S. Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration's (DOE-NNSA's) conceptual plans for disposing of 34 metric tons (MT) of surplus plutonium in the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP), a deep geologic repository near Carlsbad, New Mexico. This report evaluates DOE-NNSA's plans to ship, receive, and emplace surplus plutonium in WIPP and its understanding of the impacts of these plans on WIPP and WIPP-bound waste streams. This report, the first of two to be issued during this study, provides a preliminary assessment of the general viability of DOE-NNSA's conceptual plans, focusing on some of the barriers to their implementation.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/25272/disposal-of-surplus-plutonium-at-the-waste-isolation-pilot-plant", year = 2018, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", title = "Review of the Final Draft Analysis of Supplemental Treatment Approaches of Low-Activity Waste at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation: Review #3", isbn = "978-0-309-49521-9", abstract = "In 1943, as part of the Manhattan Project, the Hanford Nuclear Reservation was established with the mission to produce plutonium for nuclear weapons. During 45 years of operations, the Hanford Site produced about 67 metric tonnes of plutonium\u2014approximately two-thirds of the nation's stockpile. Production processes generated radioactive and other hazardous wastes and resulted in airborne, surface, subsurface, and groundwater contamination. Presently, 177 underground tanks contain collectively about 210 million liters (about 56 million gallons) of waste. The chemically complex and diverse waste is difficult to manage and dispose of safely.\n\nSection 3134 of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017 calls for a Federally Funded Research and Development Center (FFRDC) to conduct an analysis of approaches for treating the portion of low-activity waste at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation intended for supplemental treatment. The third of four, this report provides an overall assessment of the FFRDC team's final draft report, dated April 5, 2019.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/25509/review-of-the-final-draft-analysis-of-supplemental-treatment-approaches-of-low-activity-waste-at-the-hanford-nuclear-reservation", year = 2019, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Research Council", title = "Lessons Learned from the Fukushima Nuclear Accident for Improving Safety of U.S. Nuclear Plants", isbn = "978-0-309-27253-7", abstract = "The March 11, 2011, Great East Japan Earthquake and tsunami sparked a humanitarian disaster in northeastern Japan. They were responsible for more than 15,900 deaths and 2,600 missing persons as well as physical infrastructure damages exceeding $200 billion. The earthquake and tsunami also initiated a severe nuclear accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station. Three of the six reactors at the plant sustained severe core damage and released hydrogen and radioactive materials. Explosion of the released hydrogen damaged three reactor buildings and impeded onsite emergency response efforts. The accident prompted widespread evacuations of local populations, large economic losses, and the eventual shutdown of all nuclear power plants in Japan.\nLessons Learned from the Fukushima Nuclear Accident for Improving Safety and Security of U.S. Nuclear Plants is a study of the Fukushima Daiichi accident. This report examines the causes of the crisis, the performance of safety systems at the plant, and the responses of its operators following the earthquake and tsunami. The report then considers the lessons that can be learned and their implications for U.S. safety and storage of spent nuclear fuel and high-level waste, commercial nuclear reactor safety and security regulations, and design improvements. Lessons Learned makes recommendations to improve plant systems, resources, and operator training to enable effective ad hoc responses to severe accidents. This report's recommendations to incorporate modern risk concepts into safety regulations and improve the nuclear safety culture will help the industry prepare for events that could challenge the design of plant structures and lead to a loss of critical safety functions.\nIn providing a broad-scope, high-level examination of the accident, Lessons Learned is meant to complement earlier evaluations by industry and regulators. This in-depth review will be an essential resource for the nuclear power industry, policy makers, and anyone interested in the state of U.S. preparedness and response in the face of crisis situations.\n", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/18294/lessons-learned-from-the-fukushima-nuclear-accident-for-improving-safety-of-us-nuclear-plants", year = 2014, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP title = "Soviet Chemistry Today: Its Present State and Outlook for the Future", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/20381/soviet-chemistry-today-its-present-state-and-outlook-for-the", year = 1961, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "Transportation Research Board and National Research Council", title = "Going the Distance?: The Safe Transport of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste in the United States", isbn = "978-0-309-10004-5", abstract = "This new report from the National Research Council's Nuclear and Radiation Studies Board (NRSB) and the Transportation Research Board reviews the risks and technical and societal concerns for the transport of spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste in the United States. Shipments are expected to increase as the U.S. Department of Energy opens a repository for spent fuel and high-level waste at Yucca Mountain, and the commercial nuclear industry considers constructing a facility in Utah for temporary storage of spent fuel from some of its nuclear waste plants. The report concludes that there are no fundamental technical barriers to the safe transport of spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive and the radiological risks of transport are well understood and generally low. However, there are a number of challenges that must be addressed before large-quantity shipping programs can be implemented successfully. Among these are managing \"social\" risks. The report does not provide an examination of the security of shipments against malevolent acts but recommends that such an examination be carried out.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/11538/going-the-distance-the-safe-transport-of-spent-nuclear-fuel", year = 2006, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "Institute of Medicine and National Research Council", title = "Advancing Nuclear Medicine Through Innovation", isbn = "978-0-309-11067-9", abstract = "Nearly 20 million nuclear medicine procedures are carried out each year in the United States alone to diagnose and treat cancers, cardiovascular disease, and certain neurological disorders. Many of the advancements in nuclear medicine have been the result of research investments made during the past 50 years where these procedures are now a routine part of clinical care. Although nuclear medicine plays an important role in biomedical research and disease management, its promise is only beginning to be realized.\n\t\nAdvancing Nuclear Medicine Through Innovation highlights the exciting emerging opportunities in nuclear medicine, which include assessing the efficacy of new drugs in development, individualizing treatment to the patient, and understanding the biology of human diseases. Health care and pharmaceutical professionals will be most interested in this book's examination of the challenges the field faces and its recommendations for ways to reduce these impediments.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/11985/advancing-nuclear-medicine-through-innovation", year = 2007, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP title = "Review of the Methods Used to Assign Radiation Doses to Service Personnel at Nuclear Weapons Tests", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/19262/review-of-the-methods-used-to-assign-radiation-doses-to-service-personnel-at-nuclear-weapons-tests", year = 1985, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Research Council", title = "An Assessment of Potential Health Effects from Exposure to PAVE PAWS Low-Level Phased-Array Radiofrequency Energy", isbn = "978-0-309-09309-5", abstract = "PAVE PAWS is a phased-array warning system designed to detect and track sea-launched and intercontinental ballistic missiles operated on Cape Cod since 1979 by the U.S. Air Force Space Command. In 1979, the National Research Council issued two reports to address concerns from Cape Cod residents about the safety and possible health effects of the radiofrequency energy from the radar. Following up on the1979 report, the new report finds no evidence of adverse health effects to Cape Cod residents from long-term exposure to the PAVE PAWS radar. The report specifically investigated whether the PAVE PAWS radar might be responsible in part for the reported higher rates of certain cancers in the area, but concludes there is no increase in the total number of cancers or in specific cancers of the prostate, breast, lung, or colon due to radiation exposure from PAVE PAWS. The report did find in the scientific literature a few biological responses to radiofrequency exposures that were statistically significant. Such responses do not necessarily result in adverse health effects, but the report recommends additional studies to better discern the significance, if any, of those findings.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/11205/an-assessment-of-potential-health-effects-from-exposure-to-pave-paws-low-level-phased-array-radiofrequency-energy", year = 2005, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" } @BOOK{NAP author = "National Research Council", title = "Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2", isbn = "978-0-309-09156-5", abstract = "BEIR VII develops the most up-to-date and comprehensive risk estimates for cancer and other health effects from exposure to low-level ionizing radiation. It is among the first reports of its kind to include detailed estimates for cancer incidence in addition to cancer mortality. In general, BEIR VII supports previously reported risk estimates for cancer and leukemia, but the availability of new and more extensive data have strengthened confidence in these estimates. A comprehensive review of available biological and biophysical data supports a \"linear-no-threshold\" (LNT) risk model\u2014that the risk of cancer proceeds in a linear fashion at lower doses without a threshold and that the smallest dose has the potential to cause a small increase in risk to humans. The report is from the Board on Radiation Research Effects that is now part of the newly formed Nuclear and Radiation Studies Board.", url = "https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/11340/health-risks-from-exposure-to-low-levels-of-ionizing-radiation", year = 2006, publisher = "The National Academies Press", address = "Washington, DC" }